Introduction to psychology

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Unit II worksheet (chapters 4,5,6) (Due before taking test 2)

Chapter 4: Consciousness

T or F: Indicate whether each of the following statements is true(T) or false (F).

_____ When in REM sleep, we are most likely in a dream.

_____ Everyone can be reliably hypnotized.

____ Freud believed that the contents of our dreams come from our unconscious mind.

_____ Infancy is the only developmental stage during which we do not dream.

_____ Children can be hypnotized more reliably than adults.

_____ There are some nights when people do not dream at all.

_____ The circadian rhythm occupies a 24-hour period.

_____ One sleep cycle takes, on average, 90 minutes to complete.

_____ Hypnosis is a useful tool to help us accurately retrieve lost memories.

_____ Deep sleep occurs during stage one of the sleep cycle.

Matching: The following psychoactive substance with the category it belongs in.

_____ LSD A. Depressant

_____ Cocaine B. Stimulant

_____ Nicotine C. Hallucinogen

_____ Marijuana

_____ opiates

_____ caffeine

_____ alcohol

Short answer essays: Provide a short written response for each of the following questions.

1. Briefly describe the explanation of where the content of dreams come from according to the following theories:

a) Freud’s theory (dreams as wish fulfillment)

b) “residue of the day” theory

c) Activation-synthesis theory (Random neurological activity):

2. What is the possible benefit of infant dreams?

Chapter five: Learning

Matching: Based on the following scenario, match the terms from classical conditioning to the events from the story. Some of the options will not be used.

William and Mary started dating a year ago. Whenever Mary sees William her heart starts to flutter and she feels butterflies in her stomach. She thinks she might be in love! Whenever William takes Mary out on a date, he plays her his favorite song and always wears his lucky, blue shirt! After dating exclusively for about a year, William decides that maybe, he needs a break and wants to start seeing other women! Mary is heartbroken, but she has no choice and decides that she will start seeing other guys! On her first date since the break-up, Mary goes out on a blind date, and the guy is wearing a blue shirt. All of a sudden, Mary’s heart starts to flutter and she feels those familiar butterflies!!Mary wonders if she is in love (again), or is this just classical conditioning!!??

____ unconditioned stimulusA. Mary’sphysiological response when

shesees the blue shirt

B. William after Mary fell in love with him

_____ conditioned stimulus C. Blue shirts before Mary fell in love with William

_____ neutral stimulus D. Mary before she fell in love with William

E. Mary’s blind date

____ unconditioned response F. Mary’s physiological response when she sees William

_____ conditioned response G. Blue shirts after Mary fell in love with William

H. William’ s favorite song after he fell in love

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Match the following terms with the description. Not all terms will be used.

A. Stimulus generalization ____ consequence of behavior

B. Shaping that decreases the likelihood

C. Secondary reinforcer of that behavior occurring again

D. Stimulus discrimination

E. Reinforcement____ use of reinforcement to slowly ‘teach’

newbehaviors

F. Punishment____ conditioned responses elicited to other
stimuli similar to the original

G. Observational learning conditioned stimulus

H. Primary reinforcer____ learning by imitation of a model

____ any consequence of behavior that strengthens

that behavior

_____ conditioned response emitted in the presence of the original conditioned stimulus and no other stimuli

*********************************************

Chapter six: Memory

Matching: not all terms will be used!

A. encoding M. semantic memory

B. sensory storageN. elaborative rehearsal

C. short term memory O. maintenance rehearsal

D. long term memory P. chunking

E. retrieval cues Q. “7 plus or minus 2”

F. repression R. infantile amnesia

G. retroactive interference S. episodic memory

H. proactive interference

I. implicit memory

J. explicit memory

K. echoic memory

L. iconic memory

_____ average size of adult short term memory

_____ long term memories of facts and information

_____ new, more recently stored information blocking access to older information

_____ auditory, sensory memory; longest lasting of all sensory memory

_____ useful to increase the amount of information stored in short term memory

_____ storage that will never run out of space

_____ the inability for adults to retrieve memories stored before age three years

_____ long term memories of events (such as parties or having lunch) in which the individual participated

_____ keep information in short term memory (longer than 30 seconds) by repeating the information over and over again!

_____ memories used “automatically” for a skill or familiar task

______ also referred to as “working memory”

Sample Solution

Introduction to psychology

A dream includes the images, thoughts, and emotions that are experienced during sleep. Nothing appears more peaceful than a sleeping baby. But behind that serene little expression, are fantastic dramas unfolding, like theater performances behind closed stage curtains. According to the psychologist David Foulkes, one of the world`s leading experts on pediatric dreaming, people often mistakenly equate their babies` ability to perceive with an ability to dream (Harvard University Press, 2002). Newborns spend half their time in REM, accompanied by jerking eyeballs, twitching bodies and a characteristic saw-toothed pattern on brain scans. REM sleep serve a completely different role in newborns and infants: it allows their brains to build pathways, become integrated and, later, helps them develop language.

s not a rare phenomenon to feel a bulging wallet in your left pocket with loyalty cards inconveniently sticking out, as you try to be savvy and maximise on savings. Paradoxically, a similar concept in service provision carries a ‘loyalty penalty’ for British consumers, who are losing out on £4bn a year (CMA, 2018). Firms exploit uninformed customers, by discriminating between them. Contrastingly, naïve consumers become complacent and blindly trust their current suppliers, whilst those that may be aware of such practises are deterred away by high search or switching costs.

In an environment where consumers are loyal, hence have an inelastic demand, or are simply uninformed, due to the presence of search costs, firms can choose to employ second and third-degree price discrimination. For example, British Gas offers a range of tariffs dependent on your needs, location etc. for electricity usage.

I illustrate how firms manipulate prices by adopting the Stahl-Varian model. We can change the assumptions from the original model so that the informed customers, I, are new customers, and the uninformed customers, M, are old customers. Thus, the uninformed customers will have a search cost, c, if they look for cheaper service providers. The other assumptions remain the same; all consumers have the same reservation price, r, and there are n symmetric firms in the market.

The number of old (uninformed) customers per firm, U, is exogenously given by:

Firms choose prices between p*, which equals to the marginal cost, and r. Informed customers have knowledge of prices provided by firms, thus, they will only buy from the cheapest firm.

The firm will sell to I with probability:

The firm will sell to M with probability:

Therefore, the firm’s expected profits are given by:

In a competitive market, firms behave in a way to maximise profits. Gamble et al., (2013), suggest firms are cognizant of customer costs; they recognise when customers are likely to switch. In this case, they will lower their price so that the price difference between theirs and rival prices is less than the search and switching costs, thereby stopping customers from switching.

The firm sets prices to maximises profits:

The derivative helps us find the profit maximisation prices:

With increasing pA1, A2 decreases. Consequently, the business model relies on setting low prices in period 1, pA1, to capture a larger market share and raise prices in pA2, to maximise profits. For instance, in the electricity retail market, a dispersion of prices exists through a range of different tariffs offered to con

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