The promise of jobs and prosperity, among other factors, pulls people to cities. Half of the global population already lives in cities, and by 2050 two-thirds of the world`s people are expected to live in urban areas. But in cities two of the most pressing problems facing the world today also come together: poverty and environmental degradation. Poor air and water quality, insufficient water availability, waste-disposal problems, and high energy consumption are exacerbated by the increasing population density and demands of urban environments. Intensive urban growth can lead to greater poverty, with local governments unable to provide services for all people. Concentrated energy use leads to greater air pollution with significant impact on human health.
(Goodman, 1969) which refers the knowledge of the relationship between the meaning of word, phrase and sentences and how this meaning is related to each other.
Pearson (1976) argued that for actual reading, these three kinds of information are simultaneously processed. Psycholinguistics approach is also suggested that, skilled or efficient readers gradually maximize their reliance on semantic and syntactic information and minimize the dependency of grapho-phonemic analysis. In addition novice readers are ‘so bound up’ for searching phonemic information because in this stage meaning is not highlighted that much but gradually when they are become skilled their dependency of grapho-phonemic information reduced. This model explains that to become a skilled reader initially phonological awareness and decoding skills (grapho-phonemic information) are necessary, but for mature reader these skills are not minimized.
Simple View of Reading: One of the widely used conceptual frameworks of reading is ‘The Simple View of Reading’. According to this framework, the concept of reading comprises two components (Cain, 2010). One component is the ability to word reading or the ability to decode the printed word and retrieve the meaning. The other component is language (listening) comprehension skill; retrieve the sense of individual words, clauses and sentences from the sequence of texts (Gough and Tummer, 1986; Hoover and Gough, 1990). This is identified by one simple rule: R=DXC. The term ‘R’ refers to reading comprehension, ‘D’ refers to decoding which should be efficient and logical word recognition. ‘C’ refers to language comprehension. Simple view of reading defines reading comprehension as the aptness to understand word meaning, constructing sentence and interpreting discourse (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) which actually measured by listening comprehension task. Thus word decoding and listening skills are central for reading comprehension (cain, 2010). Reading comprehension considered as the ‘product’ of these two principal components.
This view claims that for efficient reading ability both skills are important. If one skill is not sufficient, other skill may not lead to become efficient reader. Despite of the argument that simple view of reading is not appropriate to explain reading ability, this claim is always considered as a plausible description of reading skill development (cain, 2010).
Overall to learn reading, phoneme manipulation, identify to grapheme sound correspondence (defined as phonological awareness, Anthony and Francis (2005) and word recognition, phonic generation or decoding is essential. As successful decoding skills is dependent on phonological abilities ((Brady & Shankweiler, 1991; Stanovich & Stanovich, 1995; Wagner, Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1994, cited in Nation & Snowling 1998a), several studies have clearly demonstrated that, phonological awareness and decoding skills are integrated for the best outcome for reading, however, it is also clearly demonstrated that for skilled reading only phonological and decoding skills are not adequate (Anth
