Current trend in the use of antibiotics for treatment of ailments

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The use of antibiotics for various ailments such as sinusitis, bronchitis and pharyngitis has become a current trending topic due to the increasing emergence of drug-resistant bacteria. This issue is particularly concerning in developing countries where access to proper medical care may be limited meaning that individuals often resort to taking antibiotics without consulting physician (Chen et al., 2019).

However, this practice is problematic because many times infections are caused by viruses rather than bacterial agents; in these cases taking an antibiotic will not help alleviate symptoms since they only target bacteria cells and not viral ones (Rosenstein & Perkins 2017). This leads to potential adverse effects from incorrect usage including stomach upset, nausea & vomiting which can actually worsen the underlying condition if a person continues using the medication unnecessarily.

Additionally, there is also a growing concern about antibiotic overuse leading to development of drug resistant “superbugs” since it reduces effectiveness when used to treat more serious conditions like hospital acquired infections. To combat this problem it is important for physicians/patients alike to understand how important judicious prescribing antibiotic really is – i.e., using them only when absolutely necessary (Rosenstein & Perkins 2017).

Ultimately then it seems that current trend towards widespread usage of antibiotics needs to stop in order to protect public health from further contamination due to resistance caused by inappropriate use. By properly educating both healthcare workers and patients about the importance of responsible administration, we can ensure future generations benefit from their lifesaving properties while minimizing any hazardous consequences that improper consumption might lead to.

The current trend in the use of antibiotics for treatment of ailments such as sinusitis, bronchitis, and pharyngitis is to limit their use when possible. This is due to an increase in antibiotic resistance from overuse and misuse of these medications. In most cases, the infections are caused by viruses and would not respond to antibiotics anyway. Therefore it is important to clearly diagnose the cause of infection before prescribing antibiotics. If a bacterial infection has been determined, then judicious use of antibiotics can be prescribed tailored to the specific type and strain causing the infection.

From a practice perspective, this means that doctors should be careful not to overprescribe or prescribe incorrectly when faced with patients complaining about sinusitis, bronchitis or pharyngitis related symptoms. Diagnostic tests should be done first before considering any antibiotic therapy if there is suspicion that bacteria may be causing the infection – otherwise only symptomatic relief should be provided until diagnosis can be established . It also means providing patient education on proper usage and storage instructions for any prescribed medications so that they do not contribute further to antibiotic resistance through inappropriate self-medication or disposal.

The basic aim of the personalized medicine is applying right therapy to the right population of people by defining disease at the moecular level. So, identifying differences among the individuals support the new treatment methods and pharmaceutical companies to develop new cancer drugs. Patients who have similar clinical outcome and histological tumor type can give different response to the same drug(17). Prediction of who will be a nonresponders reduces the harmfull effect of drug on nonresponders like a potential toxic effect of drug and cost effect. Also when drug companies develop new drug, they focus on the patient population that benefit from drug to increase positive responds(17).

U.S. Food and Drug Administration bringed development about targeted therapy. For example, to treat chronic myeloid leukemia and gastrointestinal stromal tumor(18) ,imatinib mesylate is used and to treat breast cancer(19), trastuzumab (Herceptin) is used. Molecular characteristics of these cancer types that are abnormal protein tyrosine kinase activity in chronic myeloid leukemia and gastrointestinal stromal tumor and HER-2 receptor in breastcancer is used as a predictive biomarker. By using these markers only individuals which have these molecular alteration is selected and it means they are favorable for the treatment. Using this way some cancer types’ survival rate is shifted from 0 to 70%(17).

This application is used in non-small cell lung cancer treatment with using of mutations screeing. In this cancer type mutation occurs in kinase domain of EGFR. Gefitinib (Iressa) and erlotinib are tyrosine kinase inhibitors drug are used to treat and patients give a higher response to the treatment(20). Also if patient that is never smoked Asian females have adenocarcinomas, these drugs efficient on them(21). On the other hand, if the mutatuions occur at downstream effector KRAS, patient is resistant to to erlotinib(22). Also mutations that is at KRAS have a resistance to cetuximab (Erbitux) and panitumumab (Vectibix) drugs in colon cancer patients. If the KRAS is wild type, these these drugs is effective on the patients(23). These responses that are specific and different are based on molecular profile. Some molecular test are done before the using of cetuximab or panitumumab to a colon cancer patient. Lung and colon cancer is concerned with targeted therapy that is guide to patient about treatment by understanding the structure of cancer(24).

Pharmacogenomics and treatment safety

Genes that have genetical variation encode enzymes which metobolize drug, drug transporters, or drug targets. Variation in genes that can predict dose and safety of treatment for different types of cancer patient can have harmful influence on these patients’ treatment(25). For instance, polymorphism where in cytochrome P450 enzymes could cause to metabolite to drug slowly or very fast. So patient give an overdose symptoms or no response to drug by changing the pharmacokinetics of drug metabolism, also it may cause an adverse drug reaction(26). Thereby , forecasting optimal dose of drug , inducing the harmful side effects can be provided by using polymorphism(27). In familial breast cancer, patients shows low survival rate to treatment with tamoxifen that is chemotherapeutic drug because of genetic variation in CYP2D6 that is seen as a poor metabolizer (28). There are some studies abour genetic testing on drug label including test for CYP450 polymorphisms.

Prognosis

Insteaf of using clinicopathologic parameters as a biomarker in biochemical testing for prognosis and selection of therapatic way for cancer patient , Genotyping or gene expression profiling by microarray and protein analysis by mass spectrometry is used for prognostic biomarkers with the understanding of the molecular mechanism of cancer subtypes(29).

Biomarkers can be used alone or with combination of other parameters for classify subgroups according to their risk rate and for leading to therapy decision. For example, tissue microarray analysis with combining molecular and clinical biomarker is more efficient than the clasical cl

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