Childhood and adolescence are considered to be critical stages for the development of skills in self-control, social interaction and learning (WHO). This can affect the mental health and well-being of children and adolescents, whereas exposure to risk factors (e.g. bullying) can negatively affect them in the long-term. As the rates of mental health and behavioral problems at the population level are high and continue to increase, healthcare systems could benefit from employing additional tools and methodologies. General systems theory, when applied to human personality and behavior, considers the human system to be active, open one in which personality develops through interaction with other systems; problems within one system can produce ripple effect in others. Community psychiatry sees the roots of most mental disorders as being in disturbances within the network of interacting systems.
esponse to adverse drug responses (Crowley, 2009). Like GWAS design for commonly spread diseases, a few vital issues emerge for pharmacogenomic GWAS, including the capacity to accomplish a sample size that takes into account adequate and sufficient statistical power, appropriate measurement of a drugs response phenotype with regards already affected individuals, and the capacity to cross examine possibly important genes that are frequently excluded on commercials genotyping assays because of structural variation issues and homology (e.g., CYP450 and HLA loci) (Peters and Mcleod, 2008). Regardless of these difficulties, successful GWAS on medication response have been accounted for and include, among others, the affirmation of and VKORC1 CYP2C9 and the extra part of CYP4F2 in warfarin maintenance dosing (Cooper, 2008), CYP2C19 and antiplatelet response to clopidogrel treatment (Shuldiner et al., 2009), interferon-” and IL28B reaction for hepatitis C infection, 48 and SLCO1B1 and methotrexate response (Trevino, 2009).
With respect to Adverse drug reactions (ADR), the previously between statin-induced myalgia and SLCO1B1 was identified by a GWAS (Link, 2008), similar to the recent association between flucloxacillin-induced liver injury and HLA-B*5701 (Daly, 2009) and carbamazepine-induced hypersensitivity reactions and HLA-A*3101 among people of European descent (McCormack, 2011). Regardless of the difficulties of performing GWAS to distinguish pharmacogenomic loci involved in drug responses and ADR, both confirmatory and novel association have as of now been found, which will probably increment in number as entire exome and entire genome sequencing strategies turn out to be more commonly in pharmacogenomic studies. Clinical testing for many of the genes identified by GWAS is presently available, as are progressing clinical trials to evaluate their clinical utility. For instance, an early achievement was as of late reported for planned HLA-B*1502 screening in Taiwan to prevent carbamazepineinduced Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis (Chen, 2011).
4. ROLE OF PHARMACOGENETICS ASSOCIATED WITH HIV
4.1 THE AGE OF REASON OF HIV THERAPY
The AIDS/HIV epidemic has come of ages. With the discovery of new antiretroviral drugs and the significantly rising variable patient responses to antiretroviral therapy, individual patient awareness has picked up a noticeable role. The genetic characteristics of infected individuals and the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of the virus can affect the response to antiretroviral treatment. Virus and host genetic variation are key toward understanding variant host responses, to infection, immune responses, the efficacy of host restriction factors, and pharmacokinetics.
4.2 HIV EPIDEMIC
In 1981, the first indications of the epidemic were when a homosexual patients’ group were diagnosed with different types of Kaposi’s sarcoma, pneumonia and opportunistic infections in San Francisco, New York and Los Angeles (Weiss, 2008). The identification of a retrovirus just as the the infectious agent took after and was affirmed by numerous research centers (Barre”-Sinoussi et al., 1983; Levy et al., 1984; Vilmer et al., 1984). Soon after, the ep
